Evolution Of The African-American Experiences Between 1920 And 1960 - 1375 Words

Evolution Of The African-American Experiences Between 1920 And 1960 (Essay Sample) Content: Evolution of The African-American experiences between 1920 and 1960 Student’s Name: Course: Tutor: Institutional Affiliation Date: Evolution of The African-American experiences between 1920 and 1960 The twentieth century was a period of radical transformation in the legal and political status of the African Americans. The black history in the forms of slavery, racial discrimination, poor wages for workers, denied access to education, and civil rights movement continued to shape the African-American experience even after the abolition of slavery in a late nineteenth century. At the turn of the twentieth century, the Jim Crow segregation laws were enacted in the south which created legally segregated transportation systems, schools, working environments, and lodgings. The African American workers were not allowed to join the northern labor unions and when faced with a threat of a strike, employers employed blacks since they had no movements to advocate for them. The black workers were overworked and under-payed and had to work under dangerous working environments (Herndon, A., 1937). It was until the rise of the civil rights movements in the 1960’s that the racial segregati on was abolished. Although the Blacks were engaged in all major U.S wars, they served as servicemen and were not allowed to participate in combat operations. In 1948, President Harry Truman issued an executive order that allowed the African Americans to be integrated in the US. Army (Engelhardt, B., n.d). This paper will discuss some of the key moments in the twentieth century including the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, the workers unions and the trial of the Scottsboro boys in the 1930s, the double ‘V’ campaign and the integration of blacks in the U.S forces in the 1940s, and the non-violent civil resistance in 1960s. The Harlem Renaissance was one of the most significant cultural movement that shaped the African American experience. There was a prodigious movement of the Blacks from the southern villages to the northern cities during the First World War and continued in the 1920s. This migration led to a black cultural renaissance which was known as the Harlem Renaissance and spread through New York City and other cities in the North and West (Locke, A., 1925). The Renaissance became famous as the whites visited the New York’s Harlem to enjoy the exotic adventure in the Jazz clubs, speakeasies, and dancehalls. This was the first major acknowledgment of the African American art, music, and literature. Many people including students, businessmen, peasants, professionals, artists, poets, musicians, workers, preachers, exploiters, criminals and even social outcasts came to Harlem with separate motives. The prejudice and proscription had brought all these dissimilar elements into one area where unity and racial sympathy fused their experience and sentiment (Locke, A., 1925). The mainstream critics and publishers shifted their focus to African American music, arts, literature, and politics (Hughes, 1926). Eloquent writers such as Langston Hughes raised their voice against the discrimination against Negros arguing that the blacks should have the right to choose what they do and do what they choose. The resurgence did not just shape the cultural identity of the African Americans but also led to their amplified political inclusion. The resurgence began as a result of racial segregation but later became an avenue for racial integration between the whites and the blacks (Locke, A., 1925). The injustices in the Southern legal system in the 1930s was exhibited by the unconstitutional conviction of Angelo Herndon and the Scottsboro boys who had been sentenced to death. Jim Crow segregation laws greatly affected the African American workers who were overworked and under-payed (Herndon, A., 1937). Herndon joined the communist party and began to advocate for workers right by uniting the Black and White workers. The African American workers were barred from joining the north unions and any revolt was indicted in court under the insurrection law. The unions were weak due to the division between the whites and blacks. When the white workers go on strike, the employers would call upon the blacks and when the blacks were on strike, the employers would employ more whites (Herndon, A., 1937). Herndon organized a peaceful interracial demonstration in Georgia and was arrested in 1932. He was tried in court before a jury bench who were all white and found guilty of violating the insu rrection law. He was sentenced to a minimum of 18 years in prison. The insurrection law had been enacted in a period of slavery in 1861 and stated that inciting insurrection, revolt, resistance or conspiracy on the part of slaves was punishable by death. This case drew a widespread attention and support from labor unions, religious groups, and civil rights movements. The case was brought to the U.S supreme court where the insurrection law was termed unconstitutional and Herndon was freed in 1937 (Herndon, A., 1937). During this period, the Scottsboro case had sparked protests and echoes that roared all over the world. The nine African American youths from Scottsboro, Alabama had been indicted for having raped two white girls. This case inspired a great hatred of the whites against the blacks. Although the evidence of the rape case was slim, the jury sentenced the nine youths to death. The case was taken to the U.S supreme court twice and overturned the convictions. But the Alabama j ury found them guilty and only four were freed while the rest were sentenced to long-term imprisonment (Herndon, A., 1937). These cases saw the rise of labor unions and civil rights movements. During the World War II, the black servicemen were fought to further the U.S war goals and at the same time fight against racism. This was termed as the â€Å"Double V† strategy as the African Americans were motivated to win the victory overseas and the victory at home (Engelhardt, B., n.d). More than 909,000 African Americans enlisted in the army and 167,000 enlisted in the Navy were organized in separate black units. The black soldiers were given assignments that were spearheaded by racial segregation policy which included restriction from combat responsibilities. The African Americans had to, therefore, stick to non-combat support roles and had to watch as the whites undertake difficult combat operations (Engelhardt, B., n.d). Despite these restrictions and racial prejudice, the African American troops were determined to serve their countrymen and envisioned their own freedom back home. The main goal of the Double ‘V’ campaign was to overcome the s...

A better South Africa for the new South Africa Essay

A better South Africa for the new South Africa The Apartheid struggle is not an anecdote about a few black people that lived under a suppressive government; it is a story about millions of black people who suffered tremendously under the oppressive classification system of the National Party. It is a story about bloodshed, suffering and tears. It is a story that serves as a painful reminder of the extent that a group of people would go to ensure that the purity of their race was conserved. The Apartheid struggle is a story defined by race. Growing up in Soweto was not easy. My earliest childhood memory of white people was witnessing how they shot at black people with rubber bullets; I remember seeing the agony on a woman’s face after she†¦show more content†¦Too much of our energy has been spent on the past; we need to understand that nothing we do today can change what happened. We need to work together to find new ways to ensure that the dreams and hopes that Nelson Mandela set out for South Africa in 1994, does not stay nothing but hopeless dreams. In his famous inauguration speech, Nelson Mandela stated that the â€Å"time for healing the wounds have come†. Twenty years ago, the world watched as South Africa had its first Democratic Elections and ever since then, South Africa has never been the same. South Africa is in a better place than it was twenty years ago. But is this really the South Africa that Nelson Mandela, Steve Biko and all the other unsung heroes fought for? It is time to heal the wounds of the past and I feel that the only way possible to do so is if we work on ways to ensure that South Africa would never backslide back to Apartheid again. Our politics do not have to be politics of choice between Black, White, Rich or Poor. I believe that together we can build a new form of politics, based on a shared identity. Our South African Identity. This identity does not exclude our individual identities but it unites us as a unit to work towards a better future for generations to come. All South Africans have a story to tell. We should acknowledge the evils of Apartheid and do what is possible toShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Future of South Africa672 Words   |  3 PagesThe Future of South Africa Some things in South Africa are becoming better as we move into the future, while others are becoming worse. The government in South Africa is better. All the provisions of the new constitution were in place as of the year 1999. In June of 1999, President Nelson Mandela’s term ended, and Thabo Mbeki was elected as president. There was a peaceful change in government, and Mbeki is doing many things to help the country. Some of these include eliminating hatred betweenRead MoreThe Effects of Globalization1678 Words   |  7 Pageswhich is commonly referred to as a global village (Egnatz, 2011). 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Obtaining Physical And Other Evidence Essay - 1967 Words

Question #1: Read Chapter 14 – â€Å"Obtaining Physical and Other Evidence (a) There are three types of meetings that occur between citizens and law enforcement. They are voluntary, an investigative stop and arrest by probable cause. The voluntary can be either an encounter or conversation. The investigative stop is where the officer has a reasonable suspicion to believe there is a crime. This is called a â€Å"Terry Stop†. This is because in the case Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), was a decision by the United States Supreme Court which held that the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures is not violated when a police officer stops a suspect on the street and frisks him or her without probable cause to arrest, if the police officer has a reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime and has a reasonable belief that the person may be armed and presently dangerous. 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Evolution of Anaerobic Energy Metabolism-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Biochemistry and Evolution of Anaerobic Energy Metabolism in Eukaryotes. Answer: Introduction Information on whether mitochondria are present and function in eukaryotes living in anaerobic environments has been unclear(Hjort, Goldberg, Tsaousis, Hirt, Embley, 2010). However, documented research into the phylogenetic distribution, biochemistry, and evolutionary importance of organelles participating in the formation of ATP in eukaryotes which inhabit those conditions continues to increase in volume(Gawryluk, Kamikawa, Stairs, Silberman, Brown, Roger, 2016). Anaerobic mitochondria function anaerobically and use compounds beside oxygen as the final electron acceptor(Mller, et al., 2012). The advances in the research have led to the conclusion that eukaryotic groups have an organelle with an origin unique to mitochondria, which has reproduced the origin of mitochondria to that of established eukaryotic groups(Mller, et al., 2012). The phylogeny of eukaryotic aerobes and anaerobes also interleaves around the eukaryotic groups diversity thereby disproving the belief that there ex ists a distinction between eukaryotic aerobes and their anaerobic counterparts(Mller, et al., 2012). Experimentation The article selected documented research that has been previously done on the topic and links the findings to an updated phylogenetic framework. This is done to give a comparative picture that highlights the uniformity among mitochondrial energy metabolic pathways that are not dependent on oxygen among the many eukaryotic lineages without blurring any distinctions(Makiuchi Nozaki, 2014). Therefore, findings on topics such as energy metabolism in anaerobic protists, hydrogenosomes, anaerobic mitochondria, Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus were covered(Mller, et al., 2012). The function of mitochondria in parasites was gathered from various articles and reference materials. Results and Discussion Since the article was based on a review of previous research conducted in the field of anaerobic metabolism of eukaryotes, the findings presented comprised of systematic summaries of relevant knowledge. The information presented discussed the energy metabolism in anaerobic protists, hydrogenosomes, anaerobic mitochondria, Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus, and function of mitochondria in parasites(Mller, et al., 2012). Article Critique The authors reviewed current biochemical information on enzymes and pathways taken by eukaryotes during anaerobic metabolism and identified the products that are generated in the anaerobic habitats (Mller, et al., 2012). Special attention was paid to the biochemical roles that the mitochondria in these organisms play in the anaerobic synthesis of ATP. The paper presents the metabolic maps of compartmentalized energy metabolism from 16 organisms (Mller, et al., 2012). However, the research does not report on any enzyme specialized in anaerobic metabolism, which are unique to any of the known six lineages of eukaryotes since genes found in a group are also present in another group (Mller, et al., 2012). This review was aimed at surveying the energy metabolism, particularly that of mitochondria in anaerobic eukaryotes in their life cycles. The study also focused on organisms such as metazoans, from which adequate biochemical information exists on the primary enzyme function, and the products excreted to facilitate the presentation of the metabolic maps (Mller, et al., 2012). The review covered protists and metazoans but did not consider metazoans capable of withstanding temporary hypoxia or anoxia in lactate, ethanol, and other fermentations (Mller, et al., 2012). The review centered on metabolic pathways specific to anaerobic eukaryotes and their mitochondria. The authors linked various research findings to create their review and offer an update of the phylogenetic framework. Definitions of various phenomena and processes have also been edited to fit the objectives of the paper. For example, eukaryotes in the paper refer to heterotrophs or growth of that nature because the authors did not consider photosynthetic synthesis of ATP in the paper. Therefore, the chief synthesis of ATP in eukaryotes was determined to be the oxidation of already reduced carbon compounds(Stairs, Leger, Roger, 2015). The eukaryotes considered in the paper were also those that lived in fully oxic environments and do not use oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation. Even in oxygen, such organisms are able to use it as a terminal acceptor or ignore it(Thiergart, Landan, Marc Schenk, 2012). In some sections of the paper, eukaryotes that do not require oxygen in their core energy metabolism were referred to as being anaerobic. The various definitions of similar or identical components open the paper for lots of interpretations and increases the chances of confusion. The definitions could be said to have been used discriminately to only serve the objectives of the writers. The metabolic pathways in eukaryote anaerobes section was extensive and thorough. The information was presented systematically and easy to follow the train of thought from one section to the next. The focus was drawn towards the major metabolic pathways and the key end products. This implies that the intermediary products were not considered and would thus require someone reading the paper to be familiar with the processes or products to follow the processes. Many of the organisms covered in the paper had life cycles that had huge stage-defined differences in their energy metabolism. Presentation of the pathways in a phylogenetic approach based on the six super groups limited the amount of information presented. For example, the functional information concerning loriciferan organelles was not provided same as the lineages that did not have organelles of mitochondrial origin(Esposti, Cortez, Lozano, Rasmussen, Nielsen, Romero, 2016). The implication on research is that more information needs to be provided in future studies to control or correct for new information from research(Leger, Gawryluk, Gray, Roger, 2013). As noted by the authors, previous research had presented the flow of electrons from NAD(P)H to H2 in one of the figures was inaccurate because it was not favorable energetically and not likely to be correct(Hug, Stechmann, Roger, 2010). Conclusion Extensive research has only managed to uncover similar basic sets of genes and enzymes involved in anaerobic metabolism of energy among the known primary lineages. There is unity in eukaryotic anaerobic energy metabolism in the main ancestries alluding to one origin and common ancestry. The advances in the research have led to the conclusion that eukaryotic groups have an organelle with an origin unique to mitochondria, which has reproduced the source of mitochondria to that of established groups of eukaryotes. The authors reviewed documented biochemical information on enzymes and pathways taken by eukaryotes during anaerobic metabolism and identified the products that are generated in the anaerobic habitats. The review covered protists and metazoans and not metazoans capable of withstanding short-term hypoxia or anoxia in ethanol, lactate, and other fermentations. References Esposti, M. D., Cortez, D., Lozano, L., Rasmussen, S., Nielsen, H. B., Romero, E. M. (2016). Alpha proteobacterial ancestry of the [Fe-Fe]-hydrogenases in anaerobic eukaryotes. Biology Direct, 11:34. Gawryluk, R., Kamikawa, R., Stairs, C., Silberman, J., Brown, M., Roger, A. (2016). The Earliest Stages of Mitochondrial Adaptation to Low Oxygen Revealed in a Novel Rhizarian. Current Biology, 26(20), 2729-2738. Hjort, K., Goldberg, A. V., Tsaousis, A. D., Hirt, R. P., Embley, M. (2010). Diversity and reductive evolution of mitochondria among microbial eukaryotes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Biology, DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0224. Hug, L. A., Stechmann, A., Roger, A. J. (2010). Phylogenetic Distributions and Histories of Proteins Involved in Anaerobic Pyruvate Metabolism in Eukaryotes. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 27(2), 311-324. Leger, M. M., Gawryluk, R. M., Gray, M. W., Roger, A. J. (2013). Evidence for a Hydrogenosomal-Type Anaerobic ATP Generation Pathway in Acanthamoeba castellanii. PLOS ONE, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069532. Makiuchi, T., Nozaki, T. (2014). Highly divergent mitochondrion-related organelles in anaerobic parasitic protozoa. Biochimie, 100, 3-17. Mller, M., Mentel, M., Hellemond, J. J., Henze, K., Woehle, C., Gould, S. B., et al. (2012). Biochemistry and Evolution of Anaerobic Energy Metabolism in Eukaryotes. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 76(2): 444-495. Stairs, C. W., Leger, M. M., Roger, A. J. (2015). Diversity and origins of anaerobic metabolism in mitochondria and related organelles. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Biology, DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0326. Thiergart, T., Landan, G., Marc Schenk, T. D. (2012). An Evolutionary Network of Genes Present in the Eukaryote Common Ancestor Polls Genomes on Eukaryotic and Mitochondrial Origin. Genome Biology and Evolution, 4(4), 466-485.